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diff --git a/bin/cash/TOUR b/bin/cash/TOUR new file mode 100644 index 00000000..68330af0 --- /dev/null +++ b/bin/cash/TOUR @@ -0,0 +1,301 @@ +# @(#)TOUR 8.1 (Berkeley) 5/31/93 +# $FreeBSD: releng/12.0/bin/sh/TOUR 317882 2017-05-06 13:28:42Z jilles $ + +NOTE -- This is the original TOUR paper distributed with ash and +does not represent the current state of the shell. It is provided anyway +since it provides helpful information for how the shell is structured, +but be warned that things have changed -- the current shell is +still under development. + +================================================================ + + A Tour through Ash + + Copyright 1989 by Kenneth Almquist. + + +DIRECTORIES: The subdirectory bltin contains commands which can +be compiled stand-alone. The rest of the source is in the main +ash directory. + +SOURCE CODE GENERATORS: Files whose names begin with "mk" are +programs that generate source code. A complete list of these +programs is: + + program input files generates + ------- ----------- --------- + mkbuiltins builtins.def builtins.h builtins.c + mknodes nodetypes nodes.h nodes.c + mksyntax - syntax.h syntax.c + mktokens - token.h + +There are undoubtedly too many of these. + +EXCEPTIONS: Code for dealing with exceptions appears in +exceptions.c. The C language doesn't include exception handling, +so I implement it using setjmp and longjmp. The global variable +exception contains the type of exception. EXERROR is raised by +calling error. EXINT is an interrupt. + +INTERRUPTS: In an interactive shell, an interrupt will cause an +EXINT exception to return to the main command loop. (Exception: +EXINT is not raised if the user traps interrupts using the trap +command.) The INTOFF and INTON macros (defined in exception.h) +provide uninterruptible critical sections. Between the execution +of INTOFF and the execution of INTON, interrupt signals will be +held for later delivery. INTOFF and INTON can be nested. + +MEMALLOC.C: Memalloc.c defines versions of malloc and realloc +which call error when there is no memory left. It also defines a +stack oriented memory allocation scheme. Allocating off a stack +is probably more efficient than allocation using malloc, but the +big advantage is that when an exception occurs all we have to do +to free up the memory in use at the time of the exception is to +restore the stack pointer. The stack is implemented using a +linked list of blocks. + +STPUTC: If the stack were contiguous, it would be easy to store +strings on the stack without knowing in advance how long the +string was going to be: + p = stackptr; + *p++ = c; /* repeated as many times as needed */ + stackptr = p; +The following three macros (defined in memalloc.h) perform these +operations, but grow the stack if you run off the end: + STARTSTACKSTR(p); + STPUTC(c, p); /* repeated as many times as needed */ + grabstackstr(p); + +We now start a top-down look at the code: + +MAIN.C: The main routine performs some initialization, executes +the user's profile if necessary, and calls cmdloop. Cmdloop +repeatedly parses and executes commands. + +OPTIONS.C: This file contains the option processing code. It is +called from main to parse the shell arguments when the shell is +invoked, and it also contains the set builtin. The -i and -m op- +tions (the latter turns on job control) require changes in signal +handling. The routines setjobctl (in jobs.c) and setinteractive +(in trap.c) are called to handle changes to these options. + +PARSING: The parser code is all in parser.c. A recursive des- +cent parser is used. Syntax tables (generated by mksyntax) are +used to classify characters during lexical analysis. There are +four tables: one for normal use, one for use when inside single +quotes and dollar single quotes, one for use when inside double +quotes and one for use in arithmetic. The tables are machine +dependent because they are indexed by character variables and +the range of a char varies from machine to machine. + +PARSE OUTPUT: The output of the parser consists of a tree of +nodes. The various types of nodes are defined in the file node- +types. + +Nodes of type NARG are used to represent both words and the con- +tents of here documents. An early version of ash kept the con- +tents of here documents in temporary files, but keeping here do- +cuments in memory typically results in significantly better per- +formance. It would have been nice to make it an option to use +temporary files for here documents, for the benefit of small +machines, but the code to keep track of when to delete the tem- +porary files was complex and I never fixed all the bugs in it. +(AT&T has been maintaining the Bourne shell for more than ten +years, and to the best of my knowledge they still haven't gotten +it to handle temporary files correctly in obscure cases.) + +The text field of a NARG structure points to the text of the +word. The text consists of ordinary characters and a number of +special codes defined in parser.h. The special codes are: + + CTLVAR Parameter expansion + CTLENDVAR End of parameter expansion + CTLBACKQ Command substitution + CTLBACKQ|CTLQUOTE Command substitution inside double quotes + CTLARI Arithmetic expansion + CTLENDARI End of arithmetic expansion + CTLESC Escape next character + +A variable substitution contains the following elements: + + CTLVAR type name '=' [ alternative-text CTLENDVAR ] + +The type field is a single character specifying the type of sub- +stitution. The possible types are: + + VSNORMAL $var + VSMINUS ${var-text} + VSMINUS|VSNUL ${var:-text} + VSPLUS ${var+text} + VSPLUS|VSNUL ${var:+text} + VSQUESTION ${var?text} + VSQUESTION|VSNUL ${var:?text} + VSASSIGN ${var=text} + VSASSIGN|VSNUL ${var:=text} + VSTRIMLEFT ${var#text} + VSTRIMLEFTMAX ${var##text} + VSTRIMRIGHT ${var%text} + VSTRIMRIGHTMAX ${var%%text} + VSLENGTH ${#var} + VSERROR delayed error + +In addition, the type field will have the VSQUOTE flag set if the +variable is enclosed in double quotes and the VSLINENO flag if +LINENO is being expanded (the parameter name is the decimal line +number). The parameter's name comes next, terminated by an equals +sign. If the type is not VSNORMAL (including when it is VSLENGTH), +then the text field in the substitution follows, terminated by a +CTLENDVAR byte. + +The type VSERROR is used to allow parsing bad substitutions like +${var[7]} and generate an error when they are expanded. + +Commands in back quotes are parsed and stored in a linked list. +The locations of these commands in the string are indicated by +CTLBACKQ and CTLBACKQ+CTLQUOTE characters, depending upon whether +the back quotes were enclosed in double quotes. + +Arithmetic expansion starts with CTLARI and ends with CTLENDARI. + +The character CTLESC escapes the next character, so that in case +any of the CTL characters mentioned above appear in the input, +they can be passed through transparently. CTLESC is also used to +escape '*', '?', '[', and '!' characters which were quoted by the +user and thus should not be used for file name generation. + +CTLESC characters have proved to be particularly tricky to get +right. In the case of here documents which are not subject to +variable and command substitution, the parser doesn't insert any +CTLESC characters to begin with (so the contents of the text +field can be written without any processing). Other here docu- +ments, and words which are not subject to file name generation, +have the CTLESC characters removed during the variable and command +substitution phase. Words which are subject to file name +generation have the CTLESC characters removed as part of the file +name phase. + +EXECUTION: Command execution is handled by the following files: + eval.c The top level routines. + redir.c Code to handle redirection of input and output. + jobs.c Code to handle forking, waiting, and job control. + exec.c Code to do path searches and the actual exec sys call. + expand.c Code to evaluate arguments. + var.c Maintains the variable symbol table. Called from expand.c. + +EVAL.C: Evaltree recursively executes a parse tree. The exit +status is returned in the global variable exitstatus. The alter- +native entry evalbackcmd is called to evaluate commands in back +quotes. It saves the result in memory if the command is a buil- +tin; otherwise it forks off a child to execute the command and +connects the standard output of the child to a pipe. + +JOBS.C: To create a process, you call makejob to return a job +structure, and then call forkshell (passing the job structure as +an argument) to create the process. Waitforjob waits for a job +to complete. These routines take care of process groups if job +control is defined. + +REDIR.C: Ash allows file descriptors to be redirected and then +restored without forking off a child process. This is accom- +plished by duplicating the original file descriptors. The redir- +tab structure records where the file descriptors have been dupli- +cated to. + +EXEC.C: The routine find_command locates a command, and enters +the command in the hash table if it is not already there. The +third argument specifies whether it is to print an error message +if the command is not found. (When a pipeline is set up, +find_command is called for all the commands in the pipeline be- +fore any forking is done, so to get the commands into the hash +table of the parent process. But to make command hashing as +transparent as possible, we silently ignore errors at that point +and only print error messages if the command cannot be found +later.) + +The routine shellexec is the interface to the exec system call. + +EXPAND.C: As the routine argstr generates words by parameter +expansion, command substitution and arithmetic expansion, it +performs word splitting on the result. As each word is output, +the routine expandmeta performs file name generation (if enabled). + +VAR.C: Variables are stored in a hash table. Probably we should +switch to extensible hashing. The variable name is stored in the +same string as the value (using the format "name=value") so that +no string copying is needed to create the environment of a com- +mand. Variables which the shell references internally are preal- +located so that the shell can reference the values of these vari- +ables without doing a lookup. + +When a program is run, the code in eval.c sticks any environment +variables which precede the command (as in "PATH=xxx command") in +the variable table as the simplest way to strip duplicates, and +then calls "environment" to get the value of the environment. + +BUILTIN COMMANDS: The procedures for handling these are scat- +tered throughout the code, depending on which location appears +most appropriate. They can be recognized because their names al- +ways end in "cmd". The mapping from names to procedures is +specified in the file builtins.def, which is processed by the +mkbuiltins command. + +A builtin command is invoked with argc and argv set up like a +normal program. A builtin command is allowed to overwrite its +arguments. Builtin routines can call nextopt to do option pars- +ing. This is kind of like getopt, but you don't pass argc and +argv to it. Builtin routines can also call error. This routine +normally terminates the shell (or returns to the main command +loop if the shell is interactive), but when called from a non- +special builtin command it causes the builtin command to +terminate with an exit status of 2. + +The directory bltins contains commands which can be compiled in- +dependently but can also be built into the shell for efficiency +reasons. The header file bltin.h takes care of most of the +differences between the ash and the stand-alone environment. +The user should call the main routine "main", and #define main to +be the name of the routine to use when the program is linked into +ash. This #define should appear before bltin.h is included; +bltin.h will #undef main if the program is to be compiled +stand-alone. A similar approach is used for a few utilities from +bin and usr.bin. + +CD.C: This file defines the cd and pwd builtins. + +SIGNALS: Trap.c implements the trap command. The routine set- +signal figures out what action should be taken when a signal is +received and invokes the signal system call to set the signal ac- +tion appropriately. When a signal that a user has set a trap for +is caught, the routine "onsig" sets a flag. The routine dotrap +is called at appropriate points to actually handle the signal. +When an interrupt is caught and no trap has been set for that +signal, the routine "onint" in error.c is called. + +OUTPUT: Ash uses its own output routines. There are three out- +put structures allocated. "Output" represents the standard out- +put, "errout" the standard error, and "memout" contains output +which is to be stored in memory. This last is used when a buil- +tin command appears in backquotes, to allow its output to be col- +lected without doing any I/O through the UNIX operating system. +The variables out1 and out2 normally point to output and errout, +respectively, but they are set to point to memout when appropri- +ate inside backquotes. + +INPUT: The basic input routine is pgetc, which reads from the +current input file. There is a stack of input files; the current +input file is the top file on this stack. The code allows the +input to come from a string rather than a file. (This is for the +-c option and the "." and eval builtin commands.) The global +variable plinno is saved and restored when files are pushed and +popped from the stack. The parser routines store the number of +the current line in this variable. + +DEBUGGING: If DEBUG is defined in shell.h, then the shell will +write debugging information to the file $HOME/trace. Most of +this is done using the TRACE macro, which takes a set of printf +arguments inside two sets of parenthesis. Example: +"TRACE(("n=%d0, n))". The double parenthesis are necessary be- +cause the preprocessor can't handle functions with a variable +number of arguments. Defining DEBUG also causes the shell to +generate a core dump if it is sent a quit signal. The tracing +code is in show.c. |